Title of the Article: The Role of Diplomacy in Unrecognized States: A Case Study of Somaliland

Author: Abdifatah Saeed Jama Abdulle.

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ABSTRACT:

Somaliland, a self-declared republic situated in the Horn of Africa, has achieved significant milestones in international relations despite its lack of formal recognition as an independent sovereign state. Since its unilateral declaration of independence from Somalia in 1991 and the subsequent adoption of its constitution in 2001, Somaliland has succeeded in establishing a stable and functioning government. This governance structure is marked by democratic practices, including the regular conduct of elections and peaceful transfers of power, distinguishing it from many other unrecognized entities that struggle with internal conflict and instability.

This article provides a comprehensive examination of Somaliland’s international engagements with a diverse array of global and regional actors. Key relationships analyzed include those with the United States, the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), the African Union (AU), the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), Ethiopia, Kenya, Pakistan, Taiwan, and Turkey. Through detailed case studies and an exploration of diplomatic interactions, the study sheds light on Somaliland’s strategic approach to diplomacy, its notable achievements in forging international partnerships, and the persistent challenges it faces in its pursuit of formal recognition.

The analysis highlights how Somaliland has effectively leveraged its strategic location, governance achievements, and diplomatic ingenuity to secure international support and foster meaningful relationships, even in the absence of formal statehood. The article also discusses the broader implications of Somaliland’s diplomatic strategies for unrecognized states and their role in the evolving landscape of international relations and statehood.

By contributing to the discourse on the role of unrecognized states and the evolving concept of statehood, this study offers valuable insights into how Somaliland navigates its unique status to assert its international presence and advance its strategic objectives within a complex global order.

Keywords: Somaliland, international relations, statehood, diplomatic engagement, democratic elections, global actors, regional organizations.

1. INTRODUCTION

Somaliland, situated in the Horn of Africa, has pursued a distinct political trajectory since its unilateral declaration of independence from Somalia in 1991. Despite its substantial achievements in governance—marked by democratic elections, the establishment of stable institutions, and relatively peaceful transfers of power—Somaliland remains unrecognized by the United Nations and most of the international community. This lack of formal recognition imposes significant constraints on Somaliland’s ability to fully participate in international organizations and establish formal diplomatic relations.

Nevertheless, Somaliland has adeptly navigated these constraints, successfully establishing significant diplomatic and economic relationships with various states and organizations. Its approach to diplomacy and international engagement has been characterized by pragmatic strategies and a focus on strategic partnerships, despite its unrecognized status. This article provides a comprehensive examination of Somaliland’s international engagements, analyzing how it manages to build and sustain meaningful partnerships under these challenging circumstances. By exploring Somaliland’s diplomatic interactions with key global and regional actors, this study aims to shed light on the strategies employed by unrecognized states to navigate the complexities of international relations and the evolving concept of statehood.

2. BACKGROUND AND POLITICAL CONTEXT

Somaliland's pursuit of international recognition and engagement is intricately linked to its historical and political evolution. The region's journey began with its independence from British colonial rule in 1960, followed by its merger with Italian-administered Somalia. This unification, intended to consolidate Somali-speaking territories, ultimately led to political instability and civil unrest. The subsequent decades saw Somaliland embroiled in conflict, culminating in the collapse of the Somali state in the early 1990s—a period marked by intense strife and the rise of warlord factions (Samatar, 2007).

In the wake of Somalia's disintegration, Somaliland seized the opportunity to declare its independence in 1991. This declaration was driven by long-standing grievances of marginalization and conflict, reflecting a desire to establish a stable and autonomous governance system. The adoption of Somaliland's constitution in 2001 represented a pivotal moment in its state-building efforts. The constitution laid the groundwork for a democratic framework, which has been fundamental in promoting political stability and institutional development within the region.

Somaliland’s commitment to democratic governance is evidenced by the regular conduct of elections, including the notable 2017 presidential election. This election was closely observed by international delegations from the United States, France, the United Kingdom, and the European Union (International Crisis Group, 2018). The presence of these international observers underscored the legitimacy of Somaliland’s electoral processes and its efforts to adhere to democratic principles.

Nevertheless, Somaliland faces ongoing challenges that impact its political landscape. The postponement of the 2022 elections, driven by financial constraints, and the subsequent extension of President Muse Bihi Abdi’s term, highlight the complexities inherent in maintaining democratic processes within an environment constrained by limited resources and external pressures (Harrison, 2022). These issues illustrate the ongoing struggle to balance democratic aspirations with the practical realities of governance in a context marked by economic and political challenges.

Somaliland's political journey reflects both its resilience and the difficulties it faces in its quest for broader international recognition and stability.

3. HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF SOMALILAND'S QUEST FOR RECOGNITION

Somaliland's quest for international recognition is deeply entwined with its historical background. In 1960, Somaliland gained independence and subsequently entered into a union with the Trust Territory of Somalia, forming the Somali Republic. This union, however, was fraught with political marginalization and systemic inequalities that exacerbated regional tensions and grievances. These issues contributed to the eventual disintegration of the Somali Republic, culminating in the collapse of its central government in the early 1990s. In response to this collapse, Somaliland unilaterally declared its independence in 1991 (Lewis, 2002).

Despite notable strides in state-building, including the establishment of democratic institutions and a relatively stable governance framework, Somaliland's path to formal recognition has been obstructed by persistent resistance from both Somalia and the international community. The international community's adherence to the principle of maintaining existing borders has complicated Somaliland's efforts to gain recognition (Zartman, 2000). This resistance underscores the broader challenges faced by unrecognized states, highlighting the difficulty of navigating an international system where the preservation of territorial integrity often takes precedence over new claims of sovereignty.

4. LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The legal criteria for statehood are articulated in the 1933 Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States. According to the Convention, a state must meet four primary criteria: a permanent population, a defined territory, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states (Montevideo Convention, 1933). These criteria form the basis for determining statehood under international law.

Somaliland’s pursuit of international relations is particularly noteworthy when assessed against these criteria. It possesses a permanent population, defined territory, and a functioning government. The critical criterion of interest here is its capacity to enter into relations with other states. Despite its lack of formal recognition, Somaliland has successfully engaged in diplomatic and economic relations with a range of global and regional actors.

For instance, Somaliland has signed significant agreements with multinational entities such as DP World, indicating its ability to negotiate and manage complex international commercial arrangements. Additionally, Somaliland's diplomatic interactions with countries like the United Kingdom, the United States, and Taiwan further demonstrate its active engagement in foreign policy and international relations.

These interactions suggest that Somaliland effectively manages its foreign policy and engages in international diplomacy, fulfilling one of the key criteria outlined in the Montevideo Convention. However, the formal recognition of statehood remains a separate issue, influenced by broader geopolitical and legal considerations beyond the scope of the Convention’s criteria.

5. SOMALILAND’S INTERNATIONAL ENGAGEMENTS: CASE STUDIES

5.1 Somaliland and DP World

In 2016, Somaliland secured a landmark 30-year concession agreement with DP World, a leading global port operator headquartered in Dubai, to manage and expand the Port of Berbera. This agreement, valued at approximately $442 million, involves a comprehensive development plan that includes the construction of a new container terminal and the expansion of existing port facilities (DP World, 2016).

This partnership underscores several key aspects of Somaliland’s international engagement strategy:

Attraction of Foreign Investment: The agreement with DP World demonstrates Somaliland’s ability to attract significant foreign investment despite its unrecognized status. By partnering with a major global player in port operations, Somaliland has not only secured financial resources but also gained access to advanced logistical and operational expertise.

Strategic Location: Somaliland’s geographic position along the Gulf of Aden enhances its strategic importance, making it an attractive partner for international commercial ventures. The expansion of the Port of Berbera is particularly significant given its role in regional trade routes connecting Africa, the Middle East, and Asia.

Enhanced Geopolitical Relevance: The development of the port aligns with Somaliland’s broader strategy to leverage its strategic location to bolster its geopolitical significance. By transforming Berbera into a major maritime hub, Somaliland enhances its role in regional trade and logistics, thereby increasing its visibility and influence on the international stage.

The agreement with DP World is a testament to Somaliland’s ability to navigate its unrecognized status while pursuing strategic economic partnerships. It reflects a pragmatic approach to diplomacy and economic development, showcasing how Somaliland effectively leverages its geographic advantages and seeks to enhance its international profile through strategic investments.

5.2 Somaliland and Ethiopia: A Strategic Partnership

Ethiopia, being a landlocked country, has increasingly turned to Somaliland’s Port of Berbera as a viable alternative to the congested Djibouti Port. In 2017, Ethiopia formalized this reliance through a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Somaliland and DP World, securing a 19% stake in the Berbera Port (Reuters, 2017). This agreement highlights several critical dimensions of their partnership:

Strategic Economic Interests: The acquisition of a stake in Berbera Port reflects Ethiopia’s strategic move to diversify its access to maritime trade routes. The port’s expansion and development offer Ethiopia a crucial outlet for its imports and exports, reducing dependence on the Djibouti Port, which has faced congestion and capacity issues.

Regional Logistics and Trade: The partnership with Somaliland enhances Ethiopia’s logistical capabilities and strengthens regional trade networks. The development of Berbera Port is expected to improve trade efficiency and create a more reliable and cost-effective route for Ethiopian goods, thereby boosting economic activities in both regions.

Shared Security Concerns: Beyond economic benefits, the partnership also addresses shared security concerns. Both Somaliland and Ethiopia face threats from terrorism and cross-border trade issues, including human trafficking and smuggling. Collaborative efforts in security and border management are integral to mitigating these risks and ensuring regional stability.

Geopolitical Dynamics: The engagement with Ethiopia underscores Somaliland’s role as a significant regional player, demonstrating its capacity to forge strategic alliances despite its unrecognized status. This partnership enhances Somaliland’s geopolitical relevance and provides a platform for further diplomatic and economic interactions with neighboring states.

The Ethiopia-Somaliland partnership is a strategic example of how unrecognized states can leverage their unique assets to form valuable international relationships. By addressing mutual economic and security interests, Somaliland and Ethiopia have cultivated a relationship that benefits both parties while enhancing Somaliland’s standing in the regional and global context.

5.3 Bilateral Relationships with the United Kingdom

The United Kingdom maintains a nuanced and pragmatic relationship with Somaliland, shaped by historical ties as the former colonial power and a recognition of Somaliland’s unique political and stability context. Despite not formally recognizing Somaliland as a sovereign state, the UK has engaged in informal diplomacy, providing substantial development aid and fostering dialogue on governance and security issues (UK Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, n.d.).

Development Assistance and Support

The UK has been a significant contributor to Somaliland's development efforts, supporting various projects aimed at improving infrastructure, healthcare, and education. The UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) has funded initiatives designed to bolster Somaliland’s institutional capacity and economic development. This support is often channeled through international organizations and NGOs working on the ground, reflecting a commitment to fostering stability and growth in the region.

Diplomatic Engagement

In addition to development aid, the UK has established an office in Hargeisa, Somaliland’s capital. This presence underscores a practical approach to bilateral relations, enabling the UK to engage directly with Somaliland’s government and facilitate dialogue on critical issues. The office serves as a hub for coordinating aid efforts, supporting governance initiatives, and promoting economic and trade relations.

Participation in International Forums

The UK has also played a role in supporting Somaliland’s participation in international forums. Although Somaliland is not a member of major international organizations, the UK has advocated for its inclusion in discussions and initiatives where it can contribute. This support helps to amplify Somaliland’s voice on the international stage and enhances its opportunities for diplomatic engagement.

Challenges and Considerations

Despite these positive aspects of the relationship, challenges remain. The UK's approach to Somaliland is constrained by the broader international stance on recognition and the need to navigate diplomatic relations with the Federal Republic of Somalia. The UK’s engagement is thus a balancing act, reflecting a pragmatic approach while adhering to international norms and commitments.

5.4 Somaliland and the United States

The United States has pursued a cautious yet engaged approach toward Somaliland, reflecting its strategic interests in the Horn of Africa. Although the U.S. does not formally recognize Somaliland as an independent state, it has acknowledged the region's importance in terms of regional stability, counterterrorism efforts, and humanitarian needs.

Humanitarian and Development Assistance

The U.S. has provided significant humanitarian and development assistance to Somaliland, focusing on critical areas such as health, education, and governance. U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) has been involved in funding projects aimed at improving healthcare services, supporting educational initiatives, and enhancing governance and institutional capacity. This assistance helps address pressing needs and supports Somaliland's development objectives, contributing to its stability and resilience.

Counterterrorism and Security Cooperation

Somaliland's strategic location and its role in regional stability have made it an important partner in counterterrorism efforts. The U.S. has cooperated with Somaliland on various security issues, including training and support for local security forces to combat extremist threats. This cooperation aligns with broader U.S. interests in maintaining regional stability and preventing the spread of terrorism.

Legislative and Diplomatic Support

In 2020, U.S. lawmakers introduced a resolution calling for increased engagement with Somaliland, highlighting its strategic value to U.S. interests in the Horn of Africa. The resolution reflects a growing recognition of Somaliland’s role in regional stability and its potential as a partner in addressing regional challenges. While the resolution did not change the official stance on recognition, it underscored the importance of enhancing diplomatic and development support.

Challenges and Considerations

Despite these positive aspects of the relationship, challenges remain. The U.S. approach is constrained by the broader international consensus on the non-recognition of Somaliland and the need to balance relations with the Federal Republic of Somalia. Additionally, Somaliland’s lack of formal recognition limits its ability to engage fully with international institutions and to benefit from broader international support.

In summary, the U.S. relationship with Somaliland is characterized by strategic engagement and targeted assistance. While formal recognition is not part of the current policy, the U.S. recognizes Somaliland’s importance in regional stability and counterterrorism efforts, reflected in its humanitarian support and legislative initiatives.

5.5 Somaliland and Taiwan: A Unique Partnership

The partnership between Somaliland and Taiwan demonstrates how unrecognized entities can form strategic alliances to advance their international standing and practical cooperation. Both face challenges in seeking international recognition, leading them to establish a mutually beneficial relationship.

Diplomatic Milestones:

Establishment of Representative Offices: In 2020, Somaliland and Taiwan opened offices in each other's territories, marking a significant step in their diplomatic and economic engagement (Taiwan Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2020).

High-Level Visits: Subsequent visits by high-level officials from both sides have strengthened their relationship, with discussions focusing on strategic cooperation and agreements.

Areas of Cooperation:

Trade and Investment: Taiwanese businesses have explored opportunities in Somaliland’s markets, especially in technology and infrastructure (Chen, 2021).

Health and Education: Taiwan has supported Somaliland through medical training, facility funding, scholarships, and academic exchanges, contributing to health and educational development.

Technology and Innovation: Collaborative projects in agriculture, telecommunications, and smart infrastructure have leveraged Taiwan’s technological expertise to benefit Somaliland.

Strategic Implications:

Shared Goals for Recognition: Both entities use their partnership to address the challenges of unrecognized status, aligning their diplomatic strategies and common interests.

Influence on International Relations: This relationship showcases how unrecognized states can enhance their global presence through strategic diplomatic and economic partnerships.

Challenges and Risks/Diplomatic Isolation:

One-China Policy: Somaliland’s close relationship with Taiwan risks alienating countries that adhere to the One-China policy, which could limit Somaliland’s ability to establish formal diplomatic ties with other states.

Limited Recognition: The association with Taiwan might reinforce Somaliland’s unrecognized status, as some countries may view this relationship as an obstacle to engaging with Somaliland.

Dependency Risks:

Aid and Investment Reliance: Heavy reliance on Taiwanese aid and investment may lead to economic dependency, making Somaliland vulnerable to changes in Taiwanese foreign policy or economic conditions.

Economic Stability: Fluctuations in Taiwan’s economic or political priorities could impact the consistency and scale of support Somaliland receives, potentially affecting its long-term development plans.

5.6 Somaliland and the European Union

The European Union (EU) has been actively involved with Somaliland through various forms of development cooperation and humanitarian assistance. Despite not formally recognizing Somaliland, the EU acknowledges its stability and achievements in governance by providing support in several key areas.

Development Cooperation and Humanitarian Assistance

Funding and Projects: The EU has invested in projects that enhance governance, uphold human rights, and foster economic development in Somaliland. This includes funding for infrastructure projects, educational initiatives, and health programs aimed at improving the overall quality of life in the region (European Union Delegation to Somalia, n.d.).

Governance and Human Rights: The EU’s support also extends to strengthening democratic institutions and promoting human rights. These efforts are intended to bolster Somaliland's governance structures and ensure that its development trajectory remains inclusive and sustainable (European Union Delegation to Somalia, n.d.).

Strategic Implications

Regional Stability: The EU's involvement highlights Somaliland’s role in contributing to regional stability. By engaging with Somaliland, the EU acknowledges its relative peace and stability compared to the broader Horn of Africa, thus reinforcing its position as a partner in regional development (European Union Delegation to Somalia, n.d.).

Acknowledgment of Achievements: While the EU stops short of formal recognition, its engagement reflects a tacit acknowledgment of Somaliland's progress in governance and state-building. This support helps integrate Somaliland into broader international frameworks, even without formal diplomatic recognition (European Union Delegation to Somalia, n.d.).

6. ANALYSIS OF SOMALILAND'S CAPACITY FOR INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

6.1 Strategic Location and Geopolitical Importance: Somaliland's geographic position along the Gulf of Aden significantly enhances its strategic relevance in global maritime trade routes. Its proximity to key shipping lanes underscores its importance for regional and international actors. Investments from major entities such as DP World, which has a substantial stake in managing and expanding the Port of Berbera, and partnerships with neighboring Ethiopia, highlight Somaliland's strategic value. This location not only provides economic benefits through trade but also positions Somaliland as a key player in regional security dynamics (Lewis, 2002).

6.2 Functional Governance and Stability: Somaliland’s governance structure and democratic practices set it apart from many unrecognized states. The region’s ability to conduct regular elections and maintain political stability has strengthened its international credibility. This stable governance model, characterized by peaceful transfers of power and effective administration, enhances Somaliland’s engagement capacity with global and regional partners. Such stability is crucial in demonstrating its readiness to participate in international affairs and contribute to regional stability (International Crisis Group, 2018).

6.3 Shared Interests and Pragmatic Diplomacy: Somaliland’s diplomatic approach is notably pragmatic, focusing on aligning its interests with those of its international partners. By emphasizing shared objectives such as trade, security, and development, Somaliland has been able to establish and sustain meaningful relationships despite its unrecognized status. This strategy allows Somaliland to navigate its unique position effectively, leveraging common goals to foster cooperation and build valuable international connections (Harrison, 2022).

6.4 Creative Diplomatic Strategies: Somaliland's innovative diplomatic strategies reflect its ability to pursue non-traditional avenues for international engagement. For instance, its partnership with Taiwan represents a novel approach to establishing international ties. Additionally, leveraging historical relationships, such as those with the United Kingdom, illustrates Somaliland’s capacity to use creative methods to enhance its international presence. These strategies not only help Somaliland circumvent the limitations imposed by its lack of formal recognition but also enable it to expand its influence and forge significant international relationships (Chen, 2021).

7. CHALLENGES FACING SOMALILAND'S DIPLOMATIC EFFORTS

Despite its notable achievements in governance and international engagement, Somaliland faces several significant challenges in its diplomatic efforts:

7.1 Lack of Formal Recognition: Somaliland's primary challenge is its lack of formal recognition from the international community. Without recognition, Somaliland is excluded from participating in international organizations, multilateral forums, and formal diplomatic engagements. This absence of formal status severely limits its ability to fully achieve its diplomatic and economic objectives, as it cannot access many of the benefits and privileges afforded to recognized states. This challenge underscores the difficulties faced by entities that, despite functioning effectively as states, lack the formal acknowledgment necessary to participate fully in the international system (Zartman, 2000).

7.2 Regional Dynamics and Opposition: The opposition from Somalia and the African Union presents substantial obstacles to Somaliland's diplomatic efforts. Somalia’s government vehemently rejects Somaliland’s bid for independence, viewing it as a threat to national unity and stability. This opposition extends to regional actors who align with Somalia's stance, making it challenging for Somaliland to gain broader acceptance in the region. Additionally, the African Union maintains a policy of upholding existing borders to prevent the proliferation of secessionist movements across the continent. This stance is driven by a desire to maintain regional stability and avoid setting a precedent that could encourage similar movements elsewhere (African Union, n.d.).

7.3 International Reluctance to Alter Borders: The international community's reluctance to alter established borders is another significant barrier. The principle of territorial integrity is a cornerstone of international relations, and recognizing new states like Somaliland could potentially destabilize existing boundaries and lead to further secessionist claims. This concern contributes to widespread resistance among states and international organizations to support Somaliland's recognition, as they fear the potential ramifications for global stability and the integrity of existing nation-states (Montevideo Convention, 1933).

7.4 Limited Economic and Military Power: Somaliland's limited economic and military resources further constrain its diplomatic leverage. As a relatively small and economically underdeveloped region, Somaliland relies heavily on foreign aid, investment, and strategic partnerships to bolster its international presence. This dependence limits its ability to project power and influence on a global scale. Without substantial economic or military capabilities, Somaliland’s diplomatic efforts are constrained, and its ability to assert itself in international relations is diminished. Its strategic partnerships, while valuable, cannot fully compensate for the limitations imposed by its economic and military constraints (DP World, 2016). In summary, Somaliland’s diplomatic efforts are hindered by its lack of formal recognition, regional opposition, the international reluctance to alter borders, and limited economic and military power. These challenges illustrate the complexities faced by unrecognized entities in navigating the international system and achieving their diplomatic and economic goals.

8. CONCLUSION

Somaliland’s engagement in international relations, despite its lack of formal recognition, underscores a remarkable capacity for strategic diplomacy and effective management of its unique status. The self-declared republic has adeptly leveraged its strategic location and developed pragmatic partnerships with key global and regional actors, including DP World, Ethiopia, the UK, the US, Pakistan, Taiwan, and the European Union. These partnerships illustrate Somaliland’s ability to navigate complex diplomatic environments and establish meaningful international connections, even without official statehood.

Despite these successes, Somaliland continues to face significant challenges. The lack of formal recognition limits its participation in international organizations and multilateral forums, while regional opposition and the international community’s reluctance to alter existing borders further complicate its diplomatic efforts. These factors collectively constrain Somaliland’s ability to fully achieve its diplomatic and economic objectives.

Somaliland’s experience offers valuable insights into the dynamics of unrecognized states within the contemporary global order. It highlights the evolving concepts of statehood and the ways in which entities with limited international recognition can still influence global relations through strategic diplomacy and pragmatic alliances. As the international landscape continues to evolve, Somaliland’s approach to international engagement may serve as a model for other unrecognized entities navigating similar challenges.

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